Cosine Similarity
Cosine compares vector directions. Normalization changes distance rankings, coordinate scaling changes meaning, and retrieval thresholds need evaluation.
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Pareto Frontier
The Pareto frontier is the set of options that no other option dominates, meaning at least as good on every objective and strictly better on one. It removes dominated choices but leaves the final trade-off to a preference.
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Finite Automaton
A finite automaton is a machine with a fixed, finite set of states that reads a string one symbol at a time and decides whether to accept it.
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Modular Arithmetic
Learn how counting that wraps at a fixed size fixes negative elapsed times, why remainders differ by language, and what wrapping hides.
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Log-Space
Compute products as sums of logarithms before underflow occurs, and distinguish preserving a log result from recovering a tiny ordinary value.
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Underflow
Distinguish subnormal values from zero and see why very small floating-point results lose relative precision or disappear through rounding.