Lamport Clock
A counter passed along with messages orders events by what could have influenced what — no physical clock, and no synchronization required.
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Causal Inference
1. Definition The key goal is to separate causation from mere association. 2. Why It’s Important Without causal inference, decisions may be based on spurious relationships. 3. Main Approaches to Causal Inference A) Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) B) Observational Studies (Non-Randomized) When randomization is not possible (e.g., ethics, cost), statisticians use: C) Causal Graphs &…